Gonzales Hospital Episode Detailed. On the night of March 1. Attorney General John D. Ashcroft lay ill in an intensive- care unit, his deputy, James B. Comey, received an urgent call. Gonzales and President Bush's chief of staff, Andrew H. Card Jr., were on their way to the hospital to persuade Ashcroft to reauthorize Bush's domestic surveillance program, which the Justice Department had just determined was illegal. Mueller III and raced, sirens blaring, to join Ashcroft in his hospital room, arriving minutes before Gonzales and Card. Ashcroft, summoning the strength to lift his head and speak, refused to sign the papers they had brought. Gonzales and Card, who had never acknowledged Comey's presence in the room, turned and left. But that was not before Ashcroft, Comey, Mueller and their aides prepared a mass resignation, Comey said. The domestic spying by the National Security Agency continued for several weeks without Justice approval, he said. His account appears to present yet another challenge to the embattled Gonzales, who has strongly defended the surveillance program's legality and is embroiled in a battle with Congress over the dismissals of nine U. S. He identified his deputy, Paul J. Mc. Nulty, who announced his resignation Monday, as the aide most responsible for the firings. They stand in contrast to testimony and statements from Mc. Nulty, who has acknowledged signing off on the firings but has told Congress he was surprised when he heard about the effort. It allowed the NSA to monitor e- mails and telephone calls between the United States and overseas if one party was believed linked to terrorist groups. The program was revealed in late 2. Gonzales announced in January that it had been replaced with an effort that would be supervised by a secret intelligence court. Southeast Georgia Physician Associates – Glynn General & Vascular Surgery, a strategic affiliate of Southeast Georgia Health System, offers a wide range of surgical procedures, including advanced laparoscopic and minimally. 2016 APDS RFP Request. The 2016 APDS Research & Education Fund Request for Proposal is available here. 2016 Resident Awards Winners. Outstanding Resident Podium Presentation: Brandon Wojcik, Massachusetts General Hospital. Residency Program Mission Statement: To train leaders in surgery and to train physicians who can operate in a community environment that holds to the highest ethical and professional standards and espouses the core surgical.
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The Mapping Platform for Your Organization. Create interactive maps and apps and share them with the rest of your organization. Realize new opportunities and gain insight. Sewall Company provides services in aerial photography, surveying/GPS, photogrammetry, cadastral mapping, GIS, forestry consulting, engineering. Intact Forest Landscapes. The world's IFL map is a spatial database (scale 1: 1,0. IFL) for year 2. 00. From this website you can download the world's IFL map in ESRI Shape (. Google Earth KMZ (. GIS capable software or earth browsers such as Google Earth / Arc. GIS Explorer will be required to view these files. Future Directions of GIS in Forestry: Extending Grid-based Map Analysis and Geo-web Capabilities Plenary paper presented at Esri Forestry GIS Solutions Conference, May 24, 2011, Redlands, CA Presentation by Joseph K. Forest Service Data Model. FOREST MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM (FORMIS) AN APPLICATION OF GIS IN THE FORESTRY IN TURKEY Assoc. General Command of Mapping, Ankara, Turkey. The development of open source GIS software has—in terms of software history—a long tradition with the appearance of a first system in 1978. Numerous systems are available which cover all sectors of. Provided IFL data are available for use for valid scientific, conservation, and educational purposes as long as proper citations are used. We ask that you credit the IFL data as follows: Potapov P., Yaroshenko A., Turubanova S., Dubinin M., Laestadius L., Thies C., Aksenov D., Egorov A., Yesipova Y., Glushkov I., Karpachevskiy M., Kostikova A., Manisha A., Tsybikova E., Zhuravleva I. Mapping the World's Intact Forest Landscapes by Remote Sensing. Ecology and Society, 1. The IFL Mapping Team is continuing to improve the IFL base map and to provide periodically updates as new data, technologies, and more sophisticated sources of information appears. Please, check our News & Updates section regularly for the information about latest updates of the dataset. Previous (outdated) versions of global IFL map available here.
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In older versions of the Windows OS. Posts about Configuring a program to run at Windows startup written. Actually windows knows what to run at startup by keeping a list of. 4 Comments » Tags: Configuring a program to run at Windows startup. ARE YOU WILLING TO SAY, 'LORD, TEACH ME TO PRAY'? ARE YOU WILLING TO SAY, 'LORD, TEACH ME TO PRAY'? SERIES: JESUS, SAVIOR OF THE LOST By Ron Ritchie. I was at a college retreat at Mount Hermon a couple of months ago. In the. course of our conversations, one student, with the freedom that college. I realized the student had a real desire. PDF File: Teach Me To Pray - TMTP-8-OPRG1-PDF 2/4 Teach Me To Pray INTRODUCTION This particular Teach Me To Pray PDF start with Introduction, Brief Session till the.I was hemming and hawing because no one. I wasn't sure what the answer was. If. you're like me, you might be tempted to tell the truth and answer that question. 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Teach Me To Pray This particular Teach Me To Pray Download PDF start with Introduction, Brief Session till theIndex/Glossary page, look at the table of. Title: Teach Me To Pray PDF Author: Peter Beike Subject: teach me to pray PDF Keywords: Get Immediate Access to Books teach me to pray at Our Unlimited Database. Title: Teach Me To Pray Author: Julia Kluge Subject: teach me to pray Keywords: Read Online teach me to pray, teach me to pray PDF, Download teach me to pray. I'm going to get around to it soon, or sometimes. I pray and sometimes I don't, but when I do it's always, ! The disciples. of the Lord Jesus had that hunger. They saw the need to pray to God, but. Jesus they became aware that there was something. Let's turn to Luke. And it came about that while He was praying in a certain place. He had finished, one of His disciples said to Him, . As we saw last week, it was during that. Lord was able to share with Martha that he desired relationship. In light of the nearness of the cross, her sister Mary had. Each time. we study the life of Mary in the gospel we find her at the feet of Jesus. The disciples had grown up under the teaching of the Pharisees. They watched. them pray three times a day after the model of Daniel (6: 1. Lord: . Truly I say to you, they have. They. had seen the Pharisees and John the Baptist pray, and now they saw Jesus. That is why one the the disciples on behalf of all of them said. Jesus, . For as they. Jesus, they became aware that he spent much time in. Ray Stedman, in his wonderful book on prayer entitled Talking to our. For Jesus, prayer was as necessary. There's a big difference; one is a. God, and the other is a prayer we pray over. Tibetan prayer wheel. In the latter case you lose heart. In my background. Lord's Prayer like that to get back to God after we had sinned. These insights. will also help us in our daily prayer lives with our heavenly Father. Are you willing to say, . When you pray, address your heavenly Father. Luke 1. 1: 2a . You find him over and over again talking with his Father. We find him praying (1) at his baptism, (2) on the mount of temptation. Transfiguration, (4) in the garden the night he was betrayed. Father, to. mention but a few occasions. Our Lord was living out his life in this fallen. Father. In this relationship they had agreed that as the Son he. Father, for his desire was to do the will of his Father in heaven. In Matthew 6: 9- 1. Lord had been teaching the disciples the differences. Pharisees were praying and they way they. At that time he taught them to say, . But Jesus used the. Aramaic word, which children used in addressing. Abba. Abba is like our English term Daddy or Papa. The key. both here and in the Matthew account, was the fact that our Lord, who had. Father, was telling his disciples that because. Son of God they also could have. Father; they could now as beloved children. God come into his presence and address him personally as Abba, Papa. When I was in Israel one time, we had come down from Masada in the heat. Sheraton Hotel. I jumped in the. I was relaxing in a lounge chair, I. In the pool he. looked like a little, chubby, black- haired, black- eyed cherub. He even had. water wings on. His father had maneuvered him over to the shallow steps. Coke from. the cart on the other side of the pool. But the little boy stood up and. There was terror in his big, black eyes, and he cried. The little guy came up the steps out of the pool. I have never forgotten that. I am allowed to run into the arms of. God of the universe and cry, . So we're to enter his presence humbly. Now, it is most important not to allow our minds to equate. Father with our earthly fathers. For our heavenly Father is. God. He is the infinite, eternal, unchangeable. God, whose heart is. Our heavenly Father. And. in fact, he is much more than he has even been able to reveal to us with. But by having the right. The Lord God answered the prophet's request in a night vision. As. a result Daniel blessed the God of heaven, and he hallowed and sanctified. Daniel 2: 2. 0- 2. Let the name of God be blessed forever and ever,For wisdom and power belong to Him. And it is He who changes the times and the epochs; He removes kings and establishes kings; He gives wisdom to wise men,And knowledge to men of understanding. It is He who reveals the profound and hidden things; He knows what is in the darkness,And the light dwells with Him. To Thee, O God of my fathers, I give thanks and praise,For Thou has given me wisdom and power; Even now Thou hast made known to me what we requested of Thee.. Are you willing to say, . When you pray, be aware of the spiritual kingdom. Luke 1. 1: 2b. When Jesus was teaching his disciples to pray that God the Father would. Son Jesus as King of kings, both the kingdom and the King were being. Roman Empire as well as by the Jewish nation. Once men and women accepted. Lord and Savior, Jesus would set up his spiritual kingdom. Holy Spirit. Later the Apostle Paul would write to the Romans and. One day all the world. Jesus as King of kings when he comes again to this earth. But for now his kingdom is spiritual, and you and I are to be part. What is our part in the spiritual kingdom of God? Now, since we have established. Jesus as King and Lord of the universe as well. Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven. We need to be asking God in this. Should I be. establishing a Bible study at my workplace? Should I have a home Bible study? Lord, should I be a counselor. Crisis Pregnancy Crisis Center, or cook for Green Pastures? Would. you give me the courage to work with our East Palo Alto ministry or the. Lord, what would. Lord, use me as salt and light within my immediate. Lord, use me as a minister. Lord, Thy kingdom. Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven. And Lord, please include. Life gets adventurous, exciting, and rich. You might end up crying out to God, ! I can't do. it all, the responsibility is overwhelming! We haven't understood the prayer, . When you pray, be aware of your daily needs. Luke 1. 1: 3. But then when sin entered into the world all. Man was then faced with sweat and toil as he approached hard. Since the fall, mankind has been faced with the lack of physical. Therefore, we are encouraged to. Father and ask for bread not only ourselves. Bread stands for everything we really need. God. The longer we live, the more we should be conscious of how utterly. Father to provide our daily needs. You need to relate. It's like not eating for that amount of time, and then. Our loving heavenly Father is the one who was so willing to provide the. Israelites in their. He was willing to feed his faithful. Elijah during a drought in the days of the wicked rule of Ahab and. Jezebel by sending some ravens with bread and meat. Then later Elijah was. The. Lord provided flour and oil, and her supply never ran out during the three. I Kings 1. 7). The Father met Jesus' physical needs on the. Satan left him. Later he provided wine at the. Cana. He was able to provide bread and fish for the crowds that. He provided fish for his disciples on two. And it was Jesus who taught his followers: . These are men and women. Lord Jesus for their daily needs. They are not turning. Ed Mc. Mahans of this world or to the California lottery to provide. They are not turning to a lifestyle of lying and cheating on. But they are seeking to. God of this universe to provide their daily needs, sometimes directly and. We need to be calling on our merciful God on their. Are you willing to say, . When you pray, be aware of your sinfulness. Luke 1. 1: 4a. Sin is rebellion against God. Sin is missing the mark of God's intended purpose. Instead of having giving lives, we have taking lives. It. includes greed, lying, murder, all the ways we act wrongly and break the. God. As we come into the presence and light of a holy and just God. We know that except for our. Jesus Christ as our Savior and mediator between the holy. God and sinful man, we would suffer the wrath of God. But in order to be. Otherwise we are hypocrites. Our forgiveness. is given to us by the grace and mercy of God (Ephesians 2: 8- 9). We need. to extend that same grace and mercy of God toward those who are also victims. Jesus, the innocent Lamb of God, was dying on the cross for the sins of. Father, . 4: 3. 2.) Each day as we come to the Lord and ask him to forgive our. We all fail each other. We are never quite the person others think we are. But my wife reminded me that there isn't any other kind of person. This is it until we get our new bodies. One day my younger son asked. I was spanking him, and I had to confess I didn't know. I was still. in the process of learning to be a father. As we learn from God and go through. Are you willing to say, . When you pray, be aware of temptations. Luke 1. 1: 4b. Once we come into a personal relationship with Jesus as our. Lord and Savior, we soon realize that . Now temptation. is not sin, and at times like that we need to realize that because we now. Holy Spirit within us and the power to. Jesus control our. Paul, . In this case we are praying that our Lord would not lead us, or allow us. Twice in the Garden of Gethsemane. Lord asked his disciples to . The temptation was that they would deny the Lord when. They fell asleep only to discover later that Judas. Peter would deny him, and the rest would flee. But at times in our new life in Christ, we need to realize that the Lord. Paul had a terrible trial in Asia, a trial in which. Lord delivered him, and he was able to. Corinthian church, . The apostle James. But we're allowed to ask the Lord to guard us daily. I am privileged to be in a discipleship group of men from this fellowship. In the process. of growing together the men are starting to share their lives, and we have. Lord. and at the same time many are being led into various temptations or trials. As a result we are privileged to see each other. King of kings, Jesus, our. Lord and Savior, as we pray for one another's pressures and trials. God's provision. What we have been studying together is called the Lord's Prayer, but in. Tutorial for Visual Basic Commands. DECLARATIONSProgramming languages use commands called . LESSON 1 PROGRAM AND PROGRAMMING. Microsoft Visual Basic 6.0 was designed to be easy to learn and use. You can use Microsoft Visual Basic to develop programs such as games. Today im going to show you how to make Text to Speech on Visual Basic 6.0 (vb6) So first, Open. End Sub ' end command Now, your set. Like the BASIC programming language, Visual Basic was designed to accommodate a steep learning curve. Programmers can create both simple and complex GUI applications. Programming in VB is a combination of. Tutorial for Visual Basic Commands. How to Make Voice Command Programs in Visual Basic. Declarations can be a stumbling point for Visual Basic beginners because much of the syntax used is unique to Visual Basic. Mathematical symbols such as . Use speex voice codec with visual basic. Currently this speech recognition program supports three types. Code for Voice Recognition Program in Visual Basic. Visual Basic Modules and Procedures. Jump to: navigation, search. Previous: Table of Contents: Next. Setting the scope to Private would make the Subroutine inaccessible to Visual Basic code outside the. A Visual Basic Form Scripting Language for Blind Programmers. 6.0 and the graphical forms produced were viewed and analyzed with Microsoft Visual Basic 6.0. Comparative operators such as . Other Visual Basic commands categorized as operators. Programmers familiar with languages where a. Launching Your NIDCD Research Career. On this page: What research- training funding opportunities are available through the NIDCD? The National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD) funds research and research training in the normal and disordered processes of hearing, balance, taste, smell, voice, speech, and language. The NIDCD is one of the Institutes that comprise the National Institutes of Health (NIH), which is the federal government. You should review the eligibility criteria and provisions of the funding mechanism in which you are interested. In addition, we strongly encourage you to contact the designated NIDCD program officer for your desired research training mechanism. NIDCD staff provide second- level and programmatic review of the NIDCD fellowship applications and make recommendations to the NIDCD leadership for final funding decisions. For more information on the review process for fellowship applications, see the NIDCD Fellowship Frequently Asked Questions. How long will it take to review and fund my fellowship application? Favorably reviewed fellowship applications are often funded within four to five months of submission. How do I apply? Most NIH award programs now require you to apply online. Careers in Neuroscience / Career Paths: Government Program Management. These positions make use of skills learned during scientific training. Applicants should consult the appropriate Funding Opportunity Announcement for guidance on how to apply. How to Apply for an NIDCD Grant and the NIDCD Fellowship Frequently Asked Questions pages provide guidance about the application and review process. You can also consult the National Institutes of Health (NIH) or the NIH Center for Scientific Review websites. How can I find out if the NIDCD is interested in my area of research? Potential applicants are strongly encouraged to discuss their research interests with the appropriate NIDCD scientific program officer. You might also find it helpful to consult the Research and Funding for Research sections of the NIDCD website.
In addition, the NIDCD Strategic Plan describes focused areas of NIDCD research interest and opportunity. What are the critical things I need to keep in mind as I prepare to submit my fellowship application? Comply with all application instructions, such as page limits and formatting. Have at least three letters of recommendation submitted on your behalf. Include a training plan for the responsible conduct of research, or provide documentation if you. There is a service payback obligation for postdoctoral researchers. You can find more detailed information about these fellowships here. Ruth L. Kirschstein NRSAs for Individual Predoctoral M. D/Ph. D. Kirschstein NRSAs for Individual Predoctoral Fellows (F3. Ruth L. Kirschstein NRSAs for Individual Postdoctoral Fellows (F3. Ruth L. Kirschstein NRSAs for Individual Predoctoral Fellowships to Promote Diversity in. See the NIDCD Fellowship Frequently Asked Questions page for more information about these funding mechanisms. Scientific recruitment agency provides science jobs UK. Scientific recruitment consultant specialises in scientific recruitment, UK medical sales rep jobs, science jobs in the UK, chemistry jobs etc.What career development award opportunities are available for clinically trained junior faculty members? If you are a clinically trained junior faculty member (or the equivalent in a nonacademic setting) with two or more years of prior research experience and you are on a clinician- scientist career path, you are eligible for a K0. K2. 3 award. Most NIH K award programs, including the K0. K2. 3 awards, require U. S. Patient- oriented research is defined as research on human subjects or material of human origin, in which the investigator directly interacts with human subjects. What makes a K0. 8/K2. When considering whether to apply for a mentored K award, consider the questions below: Do you have prior research experience? Have you been first author on published or in- press experimental research papers? Have you held a small, peer- reviewed research or seed grant from a funding agency or professional society? Do you have strong institutional support (a favorable research start- up package and/or protected research time)? If you are submitting a revised application, have you provided strong responses to reviewer critiques? Have you contacted the NIDCD program officer responsible for the K award program? What other award mechanisms are available for beginning investigators? The NIDCD Small Grant Program (R0. NIH Pathways to Independence Award (K9. R0. 0) supports highly promising postdoctoral fellows (the K9. R0. 0 phase). This award is intended to enable the awardee to be competitive for R0. An ESI is a new investigator (someone who hasn. To ensure that the NIH recognizes your ESI status, you must update your e. RA Commons profile to reflect the completion date of your degree or residency. There is more information about ESI and new investigators at the Office of Extramural Research? Reviews of applications from ESIs are clustered within NIH review committees, when possible, so that applicants will be judged against their peers. How is the NIDCD helping ESI applicants succeed? The NIDCD employs a special second- level review process for ESI- submitted R0. ESI applications are given special consideration for funding by the National Deafness and Other Communication Disorders Advisory Counci. I. Are there other assistance programs? NIH Loan Repayment Program. Educational loan repayment may be available for doctoral- level health professionals (broadly defined as both clinicians and nonclinicians) who are U. S. Educational debt must equal at least 2. NIH Diversity Supplement Program. The NIDCD provides opportunities for people from underrepresented groups, including those from racial and ethnic minority groups, and people with qualifying disabilities or disadvantaged backgrounds, who are interested in entering or resuming research careers in the biomedical and behavioral sciences. These programs support research experiences for a range of educational and career levels. Whatever your level of training need or career stage, a scientific program officer can be a key resource for you. The following scientific program officers are available to assist you: Training and Career Development (F, K, T)Alberto Rivera- Rentas, Ph. D. Individual fellowship awards (F- series), career development awards (K- series), institutional training grants (T- series)Hearing and Balance. Janet Cyr, Ph. D. Presbycusis, noise- induced hearing loss, peripheral auditory and vestibular system. Amy Donahue, Ph. D. Psychoacoustics, cochlear mechanics, cochlear implants, clinical assessment and management. Nancy L. Freeman, Ph. D. Cellular regeneration, development, transduction. Roger Miller, Ph. D. Biomedical engineering, neural prostheses, tinnitus. Christopher Platt, Ph. D. Central auditory and vestibular pathways, temporal bone. Bracie Watson, Ph. D. Genetics, otitis media, immune- mediated ear diseases. Taste and Smell. Susan Sullivan, Ph. D. Language. Judith Cooper, Ph. D. Voice and Speech. Lana Shekim, Ph. D. Epidemiology and Statistics. Howard Hoffman, M. A. Clinical Trials. Steven Hirschfeld, M. D., Ph. D. In addition, the NIDCD conducts research within the laboratories of its Division of Intramural Research, located on the NIH campus in Bethesda, Md. These laboratories also offer research training opportunities. For more information on the NIDCD. From logic programs updates to action description updates. Logic programming is an. A short user-defined name that describes the action taken in this step. Programs that use the. Logic Pro X In Action. Logic Remote takes advantage of the massive display to enhance your ability to play. Youth Programs; Apple Store App. Theory and Practice of Logic Programming. Logic programming - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Logic programming is a programming paradigm based on formal logic. A program written in a logic programming language is a set of sentences in logical form, expressing facts and rules about some problem domain. Major logic programming language families include Prolog, Answer set programming (ASP) and Datalog. In all of these languages, rules are written in the form of clauses: H : - B1, . Facts are rules that have no body, and are written in the simplified form: H. Microsoft Update hosts the detection logic for MBSA 2.0. In the simplest case in which H, B1, . However, there exist many extensions of this simple case, the most important one being the case in which conditions in the body of a clause can also be negations of atomic formulae. Logic programming languages that include this extension have the knowledge representation capabilities of a non- monotonic logic. In ASP and Datalog, logic programs have only a declarative reading, and their execution is performed by means of a proof procedure or model generator whose behaviour is not meant to be under the control of the programmer. However, in the Prolog family of languages, logic programs also have a procedural interpretation as goal- reduction procedures: to solve H, solve B1, and .. As a clause in a logic program, it can be used both as a procedure to test whether X is fallible by testing whether X is human, and as a procedure to find an X that is fallible by finding an X that is human. Even facts have a procedural interpretation. For example, the clause: human(socrates). X that is human by . Moreover, logic- based program transformation techniques can also be used to transform logic programs into logically equivalent programs that are more efficient. In the Prolog family of logic programming languages, the programmer can also use the known problem- solving behaviour of the execution mechanism to improve the efficiency of programs. History. However, the first proposal to use the clausal form of logic for representing computer programs was made by Cordell Green. Foster and Elcock's Absys, on the other hand, employed a combination of equations and lambda calculus in an assertional programming language which places no constraints on the order in which operations are performed. Advocates of declarative representations were notably working at Stanford, associated with John Mc. Carthy, Bertram Raphael and Cordell Green, and in Edinburgh, with John Alan Robinson (an academic visitor from Syracuse University), Pat Hayes, and Robert Kowalski. Advocates of procedural representations were mainly centered at MIT, under the leadership of Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert. The most influential implementation of Planner was the subset of Planner, called Micro- Planner, implemented by Gerry Sussman, Eugene Charniak and Terry Winograd. It was used to implement Winograd's natural- language understanding program SHRDLU, which was a landmark at that time. Planner gave rise to the programming languages QA- 4, Popler, Conniver, QLISP, and the concurrent language Ether. Hayes (1. 97. 3) developed an equational language, Golux, in which different procedures could be obtained by altering the behavior of the theorem prover. Kowalski collaborated with Colmerauer in Marseille, who developed these ideas in the design and implementation of the programming language Prolog. The Association for Logic Programming was founded to promote Logic Programming in 1. Prolog gave rise to the programming languages ALF, Fril, G. An important concept in logic programming is the separation of programs into their logic component and their control component. With pure logic programming languages, the logic component alone determines the solutions produced. The control component can be varied to provide alternative ways of executing a logic program. This notion is captured by the slogan. Algorithm = Logic + Controlwhere . The top- level goal is the root of the tree. Given any node in the tree and any clause whose head matches the node, there exists a set of child nodes corresponding to the sub- goals in the body of the clause. These child nodes are grouped together by an . The alternative sets of children corresponding to alternative ways of solving the node are grouped together by an . Prolog uses a sequential, last- in- first- out, backtracking strategy, in which only one alternative and one sub- goal is considered at a time. Other search strategies, such as parallel search, intelligent backtracking, or best- first search to find an optimal solution, are also possible. In the more general case, where sub- goals share variables, other strategies can be used, such as choosing the subgoal that is most highly instantiated or that is sufficiently instantiated so that only one procedure applies. Such strategies are used, for example, in concurrent logic programming. Negation as failure. A clause in a normal logic program has the form: H : - A1, . The negation in the negative literals not Bi is commonly referred to as . For example: canfly(X): -bird(X),notabnormal(X). X): -wounded(X). bird(john). Given the goal of finding something that can fly: there are two candidate solutions, which solve the first subgoal bird(X), namely X = john and X = mary. The second subgoal not abnormal(john) of the first candidate solution fails, because wounded(john) succeeds and therefore abnormal(john) succeeds. However, The second subgoal not abnormal(mary) of the second candidate solution succeeds, because wounded(mary) fails and therefore abnormal(mary) fails. Therefore, X = mary is the only solution of the goal. Micro- Planner had a construct, called . An equivalent operator is normally built- in in modern Prolog's implementations. It is normally written as not(Goal) or \+ Goal, where Goal is some goal (proposition) to be proved by the program. This operator differs from negation in first- order logic: a negation such as \+ X == 1 fails when the variable X has been bound to the atom 1, but it succeeds in all other cases, including when X is unbound. This makes Prolog's reasoning non- monotonic: X = 1, \+ X == 1 always fails, while \+ X == 1, X = 1 can succeed, binding X to 1, depending on whether X was initially bound (note that standard Prolog executes goals in left- to- right order). The logical status of negation as failure was unresolved until Keith Clark . Completion amounts roughly to regarding the set of all the program clauses with the same predicate on the left hand side, say. H : - Body. 1. Writing the completion also requires explicit use of the equality predicate and the inclusion of a set of appropriate axioms for equality. However, the implementation of negation by failure needs only the if- halves of the definitions without the axioms of equality. For example, the completion of the program above is: canfly(X) iff bird(X), not abnormal(X). X) iff wounded(X). X) iff X = john or X = mary. X = X. not john = mary. The notion of completion is closely related to Mc. Carthy's circumscription semantics for default reasoning, and to the closed world assumption. As an alternative to the completion semantics, negation as failure can also be interpreted epistemically, as in the stable model semantics of answer set programming. In this interpretation not(Bi) means literally that Bi is not known or not believed. The epistemic interpretation has the advantage that it can be combined very simply with classical negation, as in . The inclusion of negation as failure means that logic programming is a kind of non- monotonic logic. Despite its simplicity compared with classical logic, this combination of Horn clauses and negation as failure has proved to be surprisingly expressive. For example, it provides a natural representation for the common- sense laws of cause and effect, as formalised by both the situation calculus and event calculus. It has also been shown to correspond quite naturally to the semi- formal language of legislation. In particular, Prakken and Sartor . It emerged from a collaboration between Colmerauer in Marseille and Robert Kowalski in Edinburgh. Colmerauer was working on natural language understanding, using logic to represent semantics and using resolution for question- answering. During the summer of 1. Colmerauer and Kowalski discovered that the clausal form of logic could be used to represent formal grammars and that resolution theorem provers could be used for parsing. They observed that some theorem provers, like hyper- resolution, behave as bottom- up parsers and others, like SL- resolution (1. It was in the following summer of 1. Kowalski, again working with Colmerauer, developed the procedural interpretation of implications. This dual declarative/procedural interpretation later became formalised in the Prolog notation. H : - B1, . It also became clear that such clauses could be restricted to definite clauses or Horn clauses, where H, B1, . Kowalski's procedural interpretation and LUSH were described in a 1. The first Prolog program, also written in 1. Marseille, was a French question- answering system. The use of Prolog as a practical programming language was given great momentum by the development of a compiler by David Warren in Edinburgh in 1. Experiments demonstrated that Edinburgh Prolog could compete with the processing speed of other symbolic programming languages such as Lisp. Edinburgh Prolog became the de facto standard and strongly influenced the definition of ISO standard Prolog. Abductive logic programming. A clause in an abductive logic program has the form: H : - B1, . The abducible predicates can be constrained by integrity constraints, which can have the form: false : - B1, . For example: canfly(X): -bird(X),normal(X). X),wounded(X). bird(john). Problem solving is achieved by deriving hypotheses expressed in terms of the abducible predicates as solutions of problems to be solved. These problems can be either observations that need to be explained (as in classical abductive reasoning) or goals to be solved (as in normal logic programming). |
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